J. Environmental Factors and Other Related Topics

1. Background

Beginning early in the deployment phase of Operation Desert Shield and continuing through the post-Gulf War period, military leaders expressed concern over the possibility of Coalition forces exposure to possibly hazardous environmental and industrial conditions within Al Jubayl. In the short-term, these conditions could have affected the immediate health and war fighting ability of Coalition forces, given that Al Jubayl was a major theater staging area that played a crucial role during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. In the longer-term, exposure to some of these dangerous environmental and industrial hazards in Al Jubayl could produce detrimental health effects to those individuals exposed.

This section will review the environmental conditions and industrial activities occurring during the period Coalition forces were in Al Jubayl; the potential sources of airborne contaminants; the regulatory history of the Al Jubayl industrial area; the results of other investigations into potential environmental and industrial conditions in Al Jubayl; the limitations and uncertainties in making an assessment of this sort; and the conclusions as to whether Coalition forces could have been exposed to hazardous environmental and industrial conditions within Al Jubayl. The purpose of this review is to determine, based on available data, if a gradual or sudden accidental release of toxic chemicals occurred; and second, could such a release have resulted in adverse health effects or caused the incidents observed at Camp 13.

2. Surrounding Land Use

Constructed on undeveloped property and consisting of operations and facilities related to Saudi Arabia’s petroleum resources, the industrial area of Al Jubayl (Figure 23) encompasses about 30 square miles a little over a mile west of the Persian Gulf. The strip of land between the industrial area and the Gulf contains temporary housing and other non-industrial facilities. Permanent housing is located a mile and a half north of the industrial area.[184]

Figure 23. Al Jubayl industrial area

Camp 13 (shown in the upper left quadrant of Figure 23) covers less than a half square mile in the north central portion of the industrial area of Al Jubayl. The motor pool area used by members of Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 24 is located west of Camp 13 across a two-lane road. The motor pool area is open ground and extends a number of miles to the south and the west.[185]

3. Industrial Activities of Selected Industries Surrounding Camp 13

A number of industrial activities were close to Camp 13 (Table 5). We reviewed their potential to contribute sudden and catastrophic, as well as non-sudden and gradual releases of chemicals that could have adversely effected those who were exposed.[186]

Processes and operations associated with these industries involved the use of a number of toxic chemicals during the Gulf War deployment period. Most continued their normal operations and production schedules, but in earlier investigations, company officials stated that their companies made efforts to minimize their on-hand chemical inventory. In general, chemicals at these industries were stored in stainless steel tanks with a thickness of one and a half inches. The exception to this was anhydrous ammonia, located at the Al Jubayl Fertilizer Company east of Camp 13, which was stored in double-walled tanks in order to provide more adequate insulation for the chemical.[187]

After considering all the potential airborne contaminant releases due to industrial activity around Camp 13, the Center for Naval Analysis concluded that the chemical threat was threefold: the threat from fires due to the burning of petroleum products; the threat from toxic gases such as anhydrous ammonia, a colorless toxic gas with a pungent odor, and chlorine, a green-yellow toxic gas with a pungent, suffocating odor; and the threat from hydrogen sulfide, a colorless flammable gas, produced from fires at oil wellheads and pipelines.[188]

Table 5. Industries Surrounding Camp 13 [189]

Saudi Iron and Steel (HADEED) (#1)

Finished products

Steel billets, sponge iron, reinforcing rods, and wire coils

Daily production

12,000 metric tons

Production per year

1,100,000 metric tons

Operating procedures during OSD/DS

The company continued its normal operations and production during DS/DS, but made efforts to minimize on-hand inventory.

Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced

A number of flammable natural gases.

Environmental Controls

Controls emissions of metal fumes and dust through in-line scrubbers and bag houses.

Arabian Petrochemical Company (PETROKEMYA) (#3)
Finished products Ethylene, polystyrene, butane-1
Daily production 2,190 metric tons (estimated)
Production per year 800,000 metric tons
Operating procedures during OSD/DS The company continued its normal operations and production during DS/DS, but made efforts to minimize on-hand inventory.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Caustic solution, a corrosive; diethylamine, a highly flammable liquid; propane, a flammable gas; wash oil, a flammable liquid.
Environmental Controls Emissions routinely examined by environmental monitoring.
Petromin Shell (#4)
Finished products Fuel oil, naphtha, kerosene, gas, oil, diesel, benzene.
Daily production 685 barrels per stream day
Production per year 250,000 barrels per stream day
Operating procedures during OSD/DS Disaster plan in place and possessed capabilities to deal with explosions and leaks. Also, monitored emissions regularly.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Benzene, a highly flammable liquid; caustic solution, a corrosive liquid; di-isopropanolamine, a flammable liquid when dissolved in water; gasoline, a highly flammable liquid; kerosene, a flammable liquid; low volatility oil, flammable liquids; naptha, a highly flammable liquid;
molten sulfur, a flammable liquid at high temperatures.
Environmental Controls Emissions routinely examined by environmental monitoring.
Saudi Petrochemical Company (SADAF) (#5)
Finished products Caustic soda, industrial grade ethanol, ethylene dichloride, styrene, and ethylene
Daily production 6,600 metric tons (estimated)
Production per year 2,430,000 metric tons
Operating procedures during OSD/DS Disaster plan in place and possessed capabilities to deal with explosions and leaks. Also, monitored emissions regularly.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Caustic solution, a corrosive liquid; chlorine, a toxic gas; ethanol, a highly flammable liquid; ethyl benzene, a highly flammable liquid; ethylene dichloride, a highly flammable liquid; hydrochloric acid, a corrosive liquid; low volatility oils, flammable liquids; phosphoric acid, a corrosive liquid; propane, a flammable gas; styrene, a highly flammable liquid; sulfuric acid, a corrosive liquid.
Environmental Controls Emissions routinely examined by environmental monitoring.
Saudi European Petrochemical Company (IBN-HAYYAN) (#8)

Finished Products

Methyl tertiary butyl ether, butene-1, and butadiene

Daily production

1,370 metric tons (estimated)

Production per year

500, 000 metric tons

Operating procedures during DS/DS

The company continued its normal operations and production during DS/DS, but made efforts to minimize on-hand inventory.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Caustic solution, a corrosive liquid; chlorine, a toxic liquified gas; ethylene dichloride, a highly flammable liquid; hydrochloric acid, a corrosive liquid.

Environmental Controls

Emissions routinely examined by environmental monitoring.

National Industrial Gases Company (#9)

Finished Products

Oxygen and nitrogen

Daily production

1,200 metric tons of oxygen (estimated);

400 metric tons of nitrogen (estimated)

Production per year

438,000 metric tons of oxygen;

146,000 metric tons of nitrogen

Operating procedures during DS/DS

Disaster plan in place and possessed capabilities to deal with explosions and leaks. Also, monitored emissions regularly.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced

Oxygen increase a fire risk;

Nitrogen is an asphyxiant.

Environmental Controls

Emissions routinely examined by environmental monitoring.

Saudi Methanol Company (#10)

Finished Products

Methanol

Daily production

1,750 metric tons (estimated)

Production per year

640,000 metric tons

Operating procedures during DS/DS

Disaster plan in place and possessed capabilities to deal with explosions and leaks. Also, monitored emissions regularly.

Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Methanol is a highly flammable liquid.

Environmental Controls

Emissions negligible; byproducts are nitrogen and carbon dioxide; copper and nickel used as catalysts in the production are sold instead of being deposited as hazardous wastes.

National Methanol Company (IBN-SINA) (#13)
Finished products Methanol
Daily production 2,100 metric tons (estimated)
Production per year 770,000 metric tons
Operating procedures during OSD/DS Disaster plan in place and possessed capabilities to deal with explosions and leaks. Also, monitored emissions regularly.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Methanol is a highly flammable liquid.
Environmental Controls Emissions negligible; byproducts are nitrogen and carbon dioxide; copper and nickel used as catalysts in the production are sold instead of being deposited as hazardous wastes.
Al Jubayl Fertilizer Company (SAMAD) (#16)
Finished products Urea pellets coated with a polymer sold as fertilizer.
Daily production 1,850 metric tons
Production per year 600,000 metric tons
Operating procedures during DS/DS The company continued its normal operations and production during DS/DS, but minimized on-hand inventory significantly.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Anhydrous ammonia is a toxic gas.
Environmental Controls Experienced occasional ammonia releases at levels less than 25 parts per million. Ammonia has a permissible exposure limit of 25 parts per million, but can be smelled at only five parts per million.
National Plastic Company (A subsidiary of PETROKEMYA) (#17)
Finished products Vinyl chloride monomer and polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Daily production 1,370 metric tons (estimated)
Production per year 500,000 metric tons
Operating procedures during DS/DS The company continued its normal operations and production during DS/DS, but made efforts to minimize on-hand inventory.
Potentially hazardous chemicals stored or produced Caustic solution, a corrosive; diethylamine, a highly flammable liquid; propane, a flammable gas; wash oil, a flammable liquid.
Environmental Controls Emissions routinely examined by environmental monitoring.

4. Monitoring of Airborne Contaminants

Of seven air monitoring stations throughout Al Jubayl, monitoring station number one was nearest to Camp 13, but over a mile away. Like the rest of the monitoring stations, it continuously scanned for nine atmospheric contaminants: sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, three oxides of nitrogen, ozone, non-methane organic carbon, carbon monoxide, and inhalable suspended particulates.[190] The entirely automated process compiles data hourly, daily, and monthly. Additional information on environmental monitoring at Al Jubayl is included in Tab E. Monitoring data from station number one for the period of August 1990 to June 1991 is included in Tab F.

Data from monitoring station number one indicates that except for non-methane organic carbon and inhalable suspended particulates, there were no unusually high levels of contaminants in the air near station number one. The US Navy’s Environmental and Preventive Medicine Unit Number 2 attributed the elevated levels of non-methane organic carbon and inhalable suspended particulates during January through April of 1991 to the Kuwait oil well fires.[191] However, station number one like the rest of the monitoring stations could only monitor the air near each station and could not detect elevated levels of contaminants outside of a station’s effective zone. In addition, wind could blow a contaminant away from a station and prevent it from detecting a higher level. Therefore, a spill or other event could have occurred at or near Camp 13 without detection by monitoring station number one. In addition, these monitoring stations tested for the nine specific chemicals identified in the preceding paragraph. For a leak or spill of a chemical other than one of the nine, the monitoring data would show that nothing unusual.

5. Environmental Regulatory History of Al Jubayl

Al Jubayl’s construction and development on previously unused desert land was fortuitous because from its origin, its industries had to adhere to strict environmental control and pollution standards set by the Saudi Royal Commission of Al Jubayl and Yanbu and the Saudi Meteorological and Environmental Protection Agency, the two entities that enforce environmental regulation in Al Jubayl. Permission to build and operate plants in Al Jubayl was contingent upon detailed pollution control measures. The Commission disqualified several companies because they could not meet the rigorous environmental standards. In recognition of Al Jubayl’s successful environmental programs, the Royal Commission of Al Jubayl and Yanbu received the United Nations’ Sasakawa Award in 1988.[192]

Companies in Al Jubayl have well planned and established environmental monitoring systems, advanced laboratory equipment, and highly educated staffs. They maintain monitoring records have contaminant capturing or filtration devices at release points.[193] Monitoring station data indicates no chemical leaks or spills during the Desert Shield and Desert Storm period. Since Saudi Arabia strictly applies environmental regulations to the industries of Al Jubayl, it is unlikely environmental monitoring officials overlooked a sudden or gradual release at levels affecting the health of Coalition forces.

6. Results of Other Investigations

Two other investigations have examined the threat of hazardous environmental conditions in Al Jubayl to Coalition forces.

A November 1990 report by the Center for Naval Analyses for the I Marine Expeditionary Force entitled, "Threat from Release of Chemicals Stored or Produced in the Al Jubayl Area,"[194] examined the hazards to various military installations in the event of an accident or an attack on the industrial facilities of Al Jubayl. Under a number of different modeling scenarios, the Center prepared estimates to assess the degree of the resultant damage to military facilities and the ensuing chemical releases.

The report concluded the industrial hazards in Al Jubayl were: a threat from fires due to the ignition of petroleum products; a threat from toxic gases such as ammonia and chlorine; and a threat of hydrogen sulfide and fire from the oil wellheads and pipelines. Specifically, the threat of a toxic gas release would depend on wind direction and speed, the temperature, precipitation levels, humidity, as well as the time of day the release occurred.[195]

A second report by the Navy Environmental and Preventive Medicine Unit Number 2,[196] completed in January of 1995, examined possible environmental agents that could have caused a cloud of an unknown origin to irritate the eyes, noses, and throats of several members of Naval Mobile Construction Battalion 24, as well as cause portions of some of their T-shirts and boots to change the color of purple. Interviewers questioned members of the Royal Commission for Jubayl and Yanbu, largely members of the health service department concerned with monitoring health and environmental quality, as well as representatives of selected industries surrounding Camp 13. On most occasions, interviewers took short tours of the facilities of industries selected based on interviews with members of NMCB-24 or representative of industries that might release industrial pollutants around Camp 13.[197]

This EPMU-2 report came to a number of conclusions:

7. Conclusions Regarding Environmental Factors at Al Jubayl

From an examination of the limited data available on the environmental conditions of Al Jubayl, as well as previous environmental assessments of Al Jubayl, and a number of interviews with Gulf War veterans, we reached some conclusions.

K.  Medical Issues

Members of the NMCB-24, the subjects of several studies and reports, were among the first veterans to report unexplained illnesses following the Gulf War. In a survey of NMCB-24 Seabees conducted in 1993-1994 by the Navy Environmental and Preventive Medicine Unit Number 2, members from this unit reported a variety of symptoms but the Navy found no pattern of illness. Diagnosed diseases appeared to be normal for a group of that age.[199]

In a post-war study of Gulf War veterans, scientists at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center studied 249 survey participants of the 606 Gulf War veterans of NMCB-24 and found that 70% reported serious illnesses since returning from the war. Using factor analysis of symptoms reported by these individuals, the authors concluded that there were six distinct groups of symptoms in 63 of the individuals, and that these appeared to be related to neurological injury.[200] Neurological and psychological testing of 23 individuals from these groups showed subtle abnormalities,[201] which the authors linked to self-reported exposures to toxic chemical combinations.[202] More recently, these researchers have reported that there may be genetic susceptibilities to illness[203] and vestibular dysfunction[204] in the symptomatic individuals, but the number of individuals studied is small and the work will need to be confirmed in larger numbers of individuals.

A second study of 1,497 Seabees who served during the Gulf War period (527 Gulf War veterans and 970 non-deployed veterans) found that deployed Seabees reported substantially more symptoms and exposures than non-deployed Seabees and had more psychological symptoms and difficulties.[205] Ninety-six of these individuals (64 Gulf War veterans and 32 non-deployed veterans) were tested for antibody to the bacteria Mycoplasma fermentans (as a marker of the infection suggested by some to contribute to veterans’ illnesses), but there were no differences between the groups.[206] Data extracted from this ongoing national study did show that Seabees from NMCB-24 were more likely to report symptoms than Seabees from NMCB-40, an active duty unit that was collocated with NMCB-24 in Al Jubayl during the Gulf War, but substantial differences in the demographics, exposures, and news media attention make meaningful comparisons difficult.[207] The larger Seabee health study will take some years to complete, but may offer additional comparisons of importance between deployed and non-deployed Seabees, and perhaps between specific deployed units.


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