TAB A - Acronyms/Glossary

This tab provides a listing of acronyms found in this report. Additionally, the Glossary section provides definitions for selected technical terms that are not found in common usage.

Acronyms

Glossary

Berm

An earthen mound.

Blister Agents^[236]

Mustard (H) gas was used during the later parts of World War I. In its pure state, mustard is colorless and almost odorless. The name mustard comes from earlier methods of production that yielded an impure, mustard or rotten-onion smelling product.

Distilled mustard (HD) was originally produced from H by a purification process of washing and vacuum distillation. HD is a colorless to amber colored liquid with a garlic-like odor. It has less odor and a slightly greater blistering power than H and is more stable in storage. It is used as a delayed action casualty agent, the duration of which depends upon the munitions used and the weather. HD is heavier than water, but small droplets will float on the water surface and present a hazard.

Heavily splashed liquid mustard persists one to two days or more in concentrations that produce casualties of military significance under average weather conditions and a week to months under very cold conditions. HD on soil remains vesicant for about two weeks. The persistency in running water is only a few days, while the persistency in stagnant water can be several months. HD is about twice as persistent in seawater.

Mustard acts first as a cell irritant and finally as a cell poison on all tissue surfaces contacted. Early symptoms include inflammation of the eyes; inflammation of the nose, throat, trachea, bronchi and lung tissue; and redness of the skin. Blistering or ulceration is also likely to occur. Other effects may include vomiting and fever that begin around the same time as the skin starts to redden.

Eyes are very sensitive to mustard in low concentrations: Skin damage requires a much larger concentration. HD causes casualties at lower concentrations in hot, humid weather, because the body is moist with perspiration. Wet skin absorbs more mustard than dry skin absorbs. HD has a very low detoxification rate. Repeated exposures, therefore, are cumulative in the body.

Individuals can protect themselves from small mustard droplets or vapor by wearing protective masks and permeable protective clothing. The use of impermeable clothing and masks can protect against large droplets, splashes and smears.

Chemical Agent Monitor (CAM)^[237]

The CAM was a hand-held, soldier-operated post-attack device for monitoring chemical agent contamination on personnel and equipment. It detected vapors of chemical agents by sensing molecular ions of specific mobilities (time to pass through a series of baffles). The monitor detects and discriminates between vapors of nerve and mustard agents. It was employed in both monitoring and survey missions and was designed primarily to sort contaminated from clean vehicles, equipment, and personnel. It has been replaced with the Improved Chemical Agent Monitor (ICAM).

False Responses/Interferents: The CAM may give false readings when used in enclosed spaces or when sampling near strong vapor sources (i.e., in dense smoke). Some vapors known to give false readings are: aromatic vapors (perfumes, food flavorings, some aftershaves, peppermints, cough lozenges, and menthol cigarettes�when vapors are exhaled directly into the nozzle), cleaning compounds (disinfectants, methyl salicylate, menthol, etc.), smokes and fumes (exhaust from some rocket motors, fumes from some munitions) and some wood preservative treatments (polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs) when in an enclosed space. The operator should "experiment" in his environment to determine what common items will cause his CAM to respond.

Fox NBC Reconnaissance System^[238]

During the Gulf War, the Fox vehicle was provided by Germany and modified for use by US forces. It was designed as a high-speed, high-mobility, armored carrier capable of performing NBC reconnaissance on primary, secondary or cross-country routes. It could detect chemical contamination in its immediate environment through point detection.

During Operation Desert Storm, the Fox vehicle’s MM-1 detector continually monitored against a target list of approximately 10 selected chemical agents most likely to be present, based on intelligence reports and the suspected chemical threat--such as Tabun (GA), Sarin (GB), Soman (GD), VX (VX), S-Mustard (HD), Lewisite (L), Phosgene (CG), Hydrocyanic Acid (AC), Cyclosarin (GF), and (as interferents) Fat, Oil, Wax. To speed the initial search, the MM-1 looks for only four ion peaks for each chemical and attempts to match the pattern and ratio of these peaks against the target list of chemicals. If an initial match is made with these four ion peaks, the MM-1 sounds an alarm. However, this first alarm does not confirm the presence of a chemical agent since there are many chemical "interferents" that have similar ion peaks and many combinations of chemicals that may yield ion patterns similar to those in the target list. Consequently the MM-1 can falsely indicate the presence of dangerous chemicals.

A "false positive" is an initial alert for a dangerous chemical that is not present. To positively determine what chemical is present, the MM-1 operator must run a spectrum to analyze all the ions present, not just the four (peaks) used in the initial alert. The spectrum of the suspected chemical is compared to all the detection algorithms stored in the MM-1 chemical library. If a match is found, the MM-1 confirms the initial alert. If a match is not found, the MM-1 displays "unknown." For later analysis and a permanent record of the alarm, the complete ion spectrum by atomic weight can be printed on the Fox tape; however, this is a manual function that the operator must perform and is not an automatic feature of the system. See also the Information Paper on the Fox Reconnaissance Vehicle at this site. /foxnbc/

M256A1 Chemical Agent Detection Kit^[239]

The M256A1 kit is a portable, expendable item capable of detecting and identifying hazardous concentrations of chemical agent. It is designed to detect Blister, Blood, and Nerve agents. In the field, this kit was called simply the M256.

The M256 kit is used after a chemical alert to determine if it is safe to unmask. The M256A1 kit has replaced the M256 kit. The only difference between the two kits is that the M256A1 kit will detect lower levels of nerve agent. This improvement was accomplished by using an eel enzyme for the nerve test in the M256A1 kit in place of the horse enzyme used in the M256 kit.

False Responses/Interferents: Some smokes, high temperatures, DS2 (a chemical decontamination fluid), and petroleum products may cause false readings. Results may be inaccurate where sampling is done in smoke from burning debris.

M8 Chemical Agent Detector Paper^[240]

M8 Paper detects and identifies liquid chemical agents (Blister and Nerve).

M8 Paper is widely distributed on the battlefield. Each soldier has a booklet in his protective mask carrier. It is also found in the carrying case for the M256AI Kit and in the M18A2 Chemical Agent Detection Kit. M8 Paper is used any time the soldier suspects liquid contamination is present. The paper must touch the liquid agent. It does not detect vapors. It is best suited for use on non-porous materials. Since M8 paper will also change color from many interferents, it is unreliable to check for completeness of decontamination. M8 paper is never used as a sole basis for agent identification. It must always be verified with more reliable means of identification (e.g., M256AI Kit). Also, soldiers have some difficulty identifying the color change at night and differentiating it from wet paper.

False Responses/Interferents: M8 Paper responds to some common battlefield interferents. Among them are certain cleaning solvents (ammonia), DS2, "Break Free" (a weapons cleaner and lubricant), high temperatures, and some petroleum products.

M8A1 Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm System^{[241, 242]}

The M8A1 is an automatic chemical agent detection and warning system designed to detect the presence of nerve agent vapors or inhalable aerosols. The M8A1 will automatically signal the presence of the nerve agent in the air by providing troops with both an audible and visible warning. The M8A1 was fielded to replace the wet chemical M8 detector with a dry system; this eliminated the M229 refill kit, the logistic burden, and the associated cost. The M8A1 operates in a fixed, portable, or vehicle-mounted configuration. In the field, it was just called the M8.

False Responses/Interferents: The M43A1 (detector component) will false alarm to heavy concentrations of rocket propellant smoke, screening smoke, signaling smoke, engine exhausts, burning fuel, insecticides, paint fumes, cigarette smoke, aftershave, and whenever a nuclear blast occurs.

See also the Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses Information Paper, M8A1 Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm, October 30, 1997.

M9 Chemical Agent Detector Paper^[243]

M9 Paper is a portable, expendable single roll of paper that comes with mylar-adhesive backed and coated tape. It is used by ground forces and is placed on personnel and equipment to identify the presence of liquid chemical agent aerosols. The paper contains a suspension of an agent-sensitive dye in a paper matrix. It is colored a pale green with insoluble pigments. It will turn pink, red, reddish-brown, or red-purple when exposed to liquid agent and can detect but does not identify the specific agent.

M9 Paper is the most widely used method of detecting liquid chemical agents. It is more sensitive and reacts more rapidly than M8 Paper. The self-adhesive paper attaches to most surfaces. The paper is wrapped around the lower left sleeve, upper right sleeve, and on one lower leg of the overgarment. It is also normally attached to larger equipment that the soldier will be "handling" (crew served weapons, vehicle controls, etc.). As soon as M9 Paper indicates the presence of chemical agents, soldiers must take protective action.

False Responses/Interferents: M9 Paper responds to some common battlefield interferents. Among them are petroleum products, brake fluid, aircraft cleaning compound, DS2, insect repellent, sand color camouflage stick, smoke, defoliant, ethylene glycol (antifreeze), and scuffs of dirt or mud. The M9 Paper will not respond to chemical agents when wet and will give false positive indications when abraded against a rough surface. Heat may cause M9 Paper to turn red and cause false positive readings.

Problems exist during night operations and because of interferents. When under "red light" conditions, it is not possible to identify a color change ("Red light" conditions are those in which soldiers normally use red lenses on their flashlights and other lights at night in order to decrease their observability). Commanders must periodically rotate soldiers into a white light area to check M9 Paper for a color change.

Mark 19^[244]

The Mark 19 is a 40mm machine gun that can fire a variety of grenades including rounds that are lethal to personnel within about 16 feet and can pierce armor up to two inches thick. It is link-belt fed and is sometimes mounted on vehicles like the HMMWV.

Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP)^[245]

The wearing of MOPP gear provides soldiers protection against all known chemical agents, live biological agents, and toxins. MOPP gear consists of the following items:

• Overgarment (two-piece chemical suit)
• Overboots
• Mask ("gas mask") with hood
• Gloves

When a person is wearing MOPP gear, they can not work for very long nor can they work very fast. They may also suffer mental distress as a result of feeling closed in and will suffer from heat stress and heat exhaustion when working in warm temperatures and at high work rates. The MOPP concept arose from the need to balance individual protection with the threat, temperature, and urgency of the mission.

Commanders can raise or lower the amount of protection through five levels of MOPP. In addition, commanders can exercise a mask-only option.

MOPP Level Zero: Individuals must carry their protective mask with them at all times. Their remaining MOPP Gear must be readily available (i.e., within the work area, fighting position, living space, etc.).

MOPP Level One: Individuals wear their overgarment. They must carry the rest of their MOPP gear.

MOPP Level Two: Individuals wear their overgarment and overboots and carry the mask with hood and gloves.

MOPP Level Three: Individuals wear their overgarment, overboots, and mask with hood. They carry the gloves.

MOPP Level Four: Individuals wear all their MOPP gear.

See also the Office of the Special Assistant for Gulf War Illnesses Information Paper, Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) And Chemical Protection, October 30, 1997.

NBC Reports^[246]

NBC Reports are formatted messages designed to rapidly disseminate key information on NBC threats:

NBC 1 Report. The observing unit uses this report to give basic initial and follow-up data about an NBC attack. Battalion and higher elements consolidate reports and decide which to forward.

NBC 2 Report. The NBC 2 report is based on two or more NBC 1 reports. It is used to pass evaluated data to units, usually by Division and higher elements.

NBC 3 Report. This report disseminates information on predicted downwind hazard areas based on analysis of NBC 1 reports. Each unit evaluates the NBC 3 report, determines which of its subordinate units may be affected, and further disseminates the report as required.

NBC 4 Report. When a unit detects NBC hazards through monitoring, survey, or reconnaissance, this information is forwarded as an NBC 4 report (normally from company level).

NBC 5 Report. Once NBC 4 reports are posted on a situation map, an NBC 5 report is prepared showing contaminated areas. This report normally is disseminated as map overlays by division level.

NBC 6 Report. This report, summarizing information concerning a chemical or biological attack, is prepared at battalion and submitted to higher headquarters only when requested.

Nerve Agents^[247]

Nerve agents are organophosphate ester derivatives of phosphoric acid. They are generally divided into the G-agents, which in the unmodified state are volatile (easily vaporized), and the V-agents, which tend to be more persistent. Even G-agents are capable of being thickened with various substances to increase the persistence and penetration of exposed skin. The principal nerve agents are Tabun (GA), Sarin (GB), Soman (GD), and VX. The G-agents are organophosphates containing either fluorine or cyanide. In pure form they are colorless liquids. Their solubility in water ranges from complete solubility for GB to almost total insolubility for GD. They have a weakly fruity odor but in field concentrations are odorless. Clothing gives off G-agents for about 30 minutes after contact with vapor. The V-agents are organophosphorous compounds containing sulfur. They are oily liquids with high boiling points; they do not vaporize easily and are consequently highly persistent. They are therefore primarily contact hazards and are exceptionally toxic. Nevertheless, the limited amount of vapor they do produce is enough to be a hazard if inhaled. They do not mix with or spread through water, and any chemical reaction with water is minimal. V-agents affect the body in essentially the same manner as G-agents.

The nerve agents are not really "gasses;" technically, they are all viscous liquids and are spread in the form of liquid drops. Since G-agents vaporize easily, they become rapidly lethal in an airborne state. GB, for instance, vaporizes so easily that small droplets sprayed from a plane or released from a shell exploding in the air may never reach the ground. Consequently, GB is largely a vapor hazard. At the other extreme, agent VX hardly vaporizes at all—making it mainly a liquid contact hazard. Physical harm can occur from the spray falling on one’s skin or clothes and from touching surfaces on which the spray has fallen. GD is also mainly a vapor hazard, while GA contaminates surfaces for a sufficiently long time to be a contact hazard. Thickeners added to GD increase persistence in the field. The thickened agents form large droplets—thereby concentrating the agent reaching the ground and making the contact hazard greater. The ability of GB and GA to mix with water means that water can wash these agents off surfaces, that these agents can easily contaminate water sources, and that they will not penetrate skin as readily as the more fat-soluble agents VX and GD. G-agents spread rapidly on surfaces (like skin); VX spreads less rapidly, and the thickened agents very slowly. The moist surfaces in the lungs absorb all the agents very well.

Both G-agents and V-agents have the same physiological action on humans. They are potent inhibitors of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is required for the proper function of many nerves and muscles in nearly every multicellular animal. Normally, AChE prevents the accumulation of acetylcholine after its release in the nervous system. Acetylcholine plays a vital role in stimulating voluntary muscles and nerve endings of the autonomic nervous system and many structures within the central nervous system. Thus, nerve agents that are cholinesterase inhibitors permit acetylcholine to accumulate at those sites, mimicking the effects of a massive acetylcholine release, and striking particularly skeletal muscles, parasympathetic end organs, and the central nervous system. Individuals poisoned by nerve agents may display the following symptoms:

• Difficulty in breathing.
• Drooling and excessive sweating.
• Nausea.
• Vomiting, cramps, and loss of bladder/bowel control.
• Twitching, jerking, and staggering.
• Headache, confusion, drowsiness, coma, and convulsion.

The number and severity of symptoms depend on the quantity and path of entry into the body. When the agent is inhaled, the pupils of the eyes often pinpoint, reducing the amount of incoming light and dimming visions. If exposure is through the skin or by ingestion, however, the pupils may be normal or only slightly to moderately reduced in size. In this event, correct diagnosis depends on recognizing the other symptoms of nerve agent poisoning. Exposure through the eyes produces a very rapid onset of symptoms (usually in less than 2 to 3 minutes). Respiratory exposure usually brings on symptoms in 2 to 5 minutes. Lethal doses kill in less than 15 minutes. Liquid in the eye kills nearly as rapidly as respiratory exposure. Symptoms appear much more slowly from skin absorption. Skin absorption great enough to cause death may take one to two hours to become fatal. Respiratory lethal dosages kill in one to ten minutes, and liquid in the eye kills nearly as rapidly. Very small skin dosages sometimes cause local sweating and tremors but little other effects. Nerve agents are cumulative poisons. Repeated exposure to low concentrations, if not too far apart, will produce symptoms. The treatment of nerve agent poisoning includes the use of the nerve agent antidote (atropine and 2-PAM chloride). Atropine blocks acetylcholine, and 2-PAM Cl reactivates the enzyme AChE. As time passes without treatment, the binding of nerve agents to AChE "ages" and the 2-PAM Cl can no longer remove the agent. Certain rapidly "aging" agents, like GD, may resist treatment if it is not prompt. Therefore, an antidote enhancer, pyridostigmine bromide (PB), is available to US forces in active theaters of operation. PB pretreatment increases the victim’s survivability when the antidote is used after exposure to nerve agents.

Sabkha^[248]

An Arabic term for a broad, salt-encrusted flat that only floods occasionally. There are three types, coastal, river-lake, and continental. Coastal sabkhas in arid regions become salt flats. Salt water is drawn into the pores of the sediment and evaporation from the surface causes concentration of seawater. Continental sabkhas (referred to in this narrative) are further inland and occur in low-lying basins in the desert. Surface crusts are formed by evaporation. The water table is near the surface, usually within one meter.

SCUD

Originally, the NATO nickname for a Soviet designed and built liquid propelled short-range ballistic missile. Iraq also produced an improved domestic version that it called the Al Hussein. Both versions could carry high explosive and chemical warheads. Coalition forces often referred to these missiles collectively as SCUDs.

Selective Unmasking^[249]

The Selective Unmasking procedure is designed to determine if, following an actual or suspected NBC attack, general unit-wide unmasking is safe. Two distinct procedures for unmasking existed during the Gulf War. The first involved the use of an M256/M256A1 Chemical Detection Kit. This procedure took approximately 15 minutes. The procedure is as follows: After all tests with the kit are negative, the senior soldier selects one or two soldiers for selective unmasking. Those selected unmask for 5 minutes, and then reseal and clear their masks. They are observed for 10 minutes. If no symptoms appear, it is safe to give the "all-clear" and unmask. The selected soldiers are further observed for possible delayed symptoms.

If an M256/M256A1 kit is not available, the second procedure is used. This unmasking procedure takes about 35 minutes. After a reasonable amount of time passes following an attack, the senior soldier selects one or two soldiers. Those selected take a deep breath, break the mask seals, and keep their eyes wide open for 15 seconds. After clearing and resealing their masks they are observed for 10 minutes. If no symptoms are observed, they again break the mask seals, take two or three breaths, and then clear and reseal their masks. Again, they are observed for 10 minutes, and if no symptoms appear, they completely unmask for 5 minutes and then remask. If no symptoms are observed in the 10 minutes following the last unmasking, everyone else in the unit can then unmask. The selected soldiers are further observed for any delayed symptoms.

Task Force

As used in this narrative, a task force is a tailored ("task organized") collection of forces drawn from various units and built around a core regimental combat team (an infantry regiment).

UAV^[250]

UAV stands for "Unmanned Aerial Vehicle." Also known as Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs), UAVs are powered vehicles that can fly autonomously, be piloted remotely, and are either expendable or recoverable. During the Gulf War, the Marine Corps used the RQ-2A Pioneer UAV. A 26 horsepower gasoline engine powered the RQ-2A, and it launched after either a rolling takeoff or rocket assisted takeoff. The Pioneer had a wingspan of 16.9 feet, a length of 14 feet, and a height of 3.3 feet.

The UAV is capable of locating and identifying major enemy forces, moving vehicles, weapons systems that are firing, and other targets. It can also help designate targets, detect mines, relay communications/data, or intercept enemy signals. The UAV can carry a variety of non-lethal payloads (including real-time imagery equipment for target acquisition and airborne data relay) and lethal payloads.

During the Gulf War, UAV companies deployed to the theater to support of Marine forces. These companies performed Battle Damage Assessments (BDA), airborne search and rescue surveillance, and route and landing zone reconnaissance. Artillery battalions during the war successfully used UAVs to locate targets and adjust artillery fires on the enemy. UAV information went to a separate Ground Control Station or directly to the artillery unit’s Video Terminal. This provided the unit commander immediate access to real time information.

XM21 Remote Sensing Chemical Agent Alarm (RSCAAL)^[251]

At the time of the Gulf War, the XM21 was a prototype (experimental) device--hence the "X"M21. It detects nerve and blister agent vapor clouds at line-of-sight distances out to 5 km. The XM21 alarm automatically scans a 60-degree arc, in seven field-of-view segments, to detect agent clouds. It is a passive infrared device, which operates by analyzing emission and absorption spectra in the 8-12 micron range.

Due to its infrared technology, the environment in which it is employed affects the XM21. A difference in temperature between the background and an agent cloud is required for detection. While temperature differences always exist, the difference is small during certain periods, e.g., dusk, dawn, and periods of significant cloud cover. Water vapor levels in the atmosphere also effect the detector’s sensitivity level.

False Responses/Interferents: While the XM21 is designed to recognize chemical warfare agents in the presence of common battlefield interferents, certain interferents, such as organophosphorous insecticides and large quantities of military Halon (a fire suppressant) could cause false positives. It is also possible that certain contaminants or a low power supply could cause false alarms.^[252]

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